15–25% of the AP exam. Key topics: Developmental research methods: cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cohort-sequential designs, Physical development: prenatal stages, teratogens, infant reflexes, brain development, puberty, aging, Cognitive development: Piaget's stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational); schemas, assimilation, accommodation, object permanence, conservation, Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and scaffolding, Social development: Harlow's attachment studies, Ainsworth's attachment styles (secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant), Bowlby, Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development, Kohlberg's stages of moral development (3 levels, 6 stages), Parenting styles (Baumrind): authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, Gender and sexuality: biological, cognitive, and social-cultural influences, Classical conditioning: Pavlov; unconditioned and conditioned stimuli/responses; acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, higher-order conditioning; Watson's Little Albert; taste aversion (Garcia effect), Operant conditioning: Thorndike's law of effect, Skinner; reinforcement (positive/negative) vs. punishment (positive/negative); primary vs. secondary reinforcers; schedules of reinforcement (fixed/variable ratio/interval); shaping, chaining, learned helplessness, Observational and social learning: Bandura, Bobo doll experiment, modeling, vicarious reinforcement, mirror neurons, Cognitive maps: Tolman's latent learning; insight learning (Köhler).
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