12–16% of the AP exam. Key topics: DNA structure: double helix, antiparallel strands, complementary base pairing, DNA replication: semiconservative model, leading and lagging strand synthesis, key enzymes (helicase, primase, DNA polymerase, ligase), Transcription: RNA polymerase, promoter recognition, mRNA synthesis, termination, Translation: ribosome structure, tRNA-codon matching, polypeptide elongation and termination, Gene regulation in prokaryotes: lac operon model (inducible), trp operon (repressible), Gene regulation in eukaryotes: transcription factors, enhancers, silencers, chromatin remodeling, Post-transcriptional regulation: 5' cap and poly-A tail, splicing (introns/exons), miRNA, siRNA, Epigenetic mechanisms: DNA methylation and histone acetylation/methylation effects on gene expression, Biotechnology applications: PCR, gel electrophoresis, CRISPR-Cas9, bacterial transformation, recombinant DNA technology.
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